![]() ![]() Intergenerational transmission childhood adversity developmental programming epigenetic mechanisms fetoplacental interaction offspring of trauma survivors post-traumatic stress disorder trauma. Elucidating the role of epigenetic mechanisms in intergenerational effects through prospective, multi-generational studies may ultimately yield a cogent understanding of how individual, cultural and societal experiences permeate our biology. Given the paucity of human studies and the methodological challenges in conducting such studies, it is not possible to attribute intergenerational effects in humans to a single set of biological or other determinants at this time. However, much of the research has focused on indigenous populations or Holocaust survivors despite the historical experiences of the African American community. ![]() The most compelling work to date has been done in animal models, where the opportunity for controlled designs enables clear interpretations of transmissible effects. Intergenerational trauma theories suggest that trauma(s) endured by a community have long-standing effects that can be passed on through generations. The topic of intergenerational, or transgenerational, transmission of trauma first entered the literature regarding Holocaust survivor families and the trauma symptoms experienced by subsequent generations (Danieli, 1983).While the DSM 5. Little is also known about resilience and strengths that may mitigate or prevent the risk of intergenerational transmission of trauma. ![]() Several factors, such as sex-specific epigenetic effects following trauma exposure and parental developmental stage at the time of exposure, explain different effects of maternal and paternal trauma. This article is a review of the literature on intergenerational transmission of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) from fathers to sons in families of war veterans. The second includes epigenetic changes associated with a preconception trauma in parents that may affect the germline, and impact fetoplacental interactions. These can result from the influence of the offspring's early environmental exposures, including postnatal maternal care as well as in utero exposure reflecting maternal stress during pregnancy. The first involves developmentally programmed effects. Two broad categories of epigenetically mediated effects are highlighted. Little is also known about resilience and strengths that may mitigate or prevent the risk of intergenerational transmission of trauma.This paper reviews the research evidence concerning the intergenerational transmission of trauma effects and the possible role of epigenetic mechanisms in this transmission. The review addresses several questions: (1) Which fathers have a greater tendency to transmit their distress to their offspring? (2) What is transmitted from father to child? (3) How is the distress transmitted and through which mechanisms? And finally, (4) Which children are more vulnerable to the transmission of PTSD distress in the family? Whereas the existing literature deals mainly with fathers' PTSD as a risk for increased emotional and behavior problems among the children, this review also highlights the current paucity of knowledge regarding family members and extrafamilial systems that may contribute to intergenerational transmission of PTSD or to its moderation. This article is a review of the literature on intergenerational transmission of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) from fathers to sons in families of war veterans. ![]()
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